Social Construction of Reality

For ages, humans have struggled with the nearly impossible task of defining reality. In some areas, such as the natural sciences, this act of definition is simpler, for each piece of concrete evidence could be neatly sorted into categories based on intrinsic physical traits. In the sociological realm, however, absolute truth is much more difficult to ascertain. In this vein, many theorists have contributed to the sociology of knowledge, which seeks to explain the social construction of reality, or how the members of a given society work together to create a widely accepted view of reality. Notions such as marriage, currency, and government all serve as examples of socially agreed upon intangibles (Searle, 1985). The social construction theory discusses how this unconscious formation of reality is a mechanism for helping humankind reach its own ends. This vision of truth cannot retain its validity, however, if separated from the natural and social contexts around which it was conceived. Another defining factor of socially constructed reality is that it cannot be changed by the will of a single individual, but must instead evolve over time with the changing attitudes and environments of the community. 

The social construction of reality has its earliest roots in Marxs theory of change and in the German culture. In the wake of Hitlers defeat, much attention was turned to Karl Mannheims attempt at solving the crisis of culture that enveloped post-World War II Germany (Simonds, 1978). Mannheim turned to the sociology of knowledge in an attempt to create a methodology appropriate to the study of the sociological world, for he believed the methods appropriate to the study of the physical world . . .cannot be simply transferred to social phenomena (Simonds, 1978). Mannheim's theory garnered acceptance in the North American sociological world because of similar problems that plagued both the German and American societies. As with many ideas, the theorys basic tenets were somewhat changed and Americanized with reception into U.S. culture (Stehr and Meja, 1984). The notion that everything is explained in reference to social existence evolved to dictate that human ideas serve as the foundation of human actions and human existence (McCarthy, 1996). Social organization also came to play a big role in defining the theory in the English-speaking world. The term social construction of reality was first coined by theorists Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann in the mid-twentieth century. Seeking to redefine the ambiguity of the sociology of knowledge, Berger and Luckmann brought to the forefront the discussion of subjective reality versus objective reality. They hold that all knowledge is developed, transmitted, and maintained in social situations . . . and that it seeks to understand the process by which this is done in such a way that a taken for granted reality congeals for the man on the street" (Berger and Luckmann, 1967). After the publication of Berger and Luckmanns The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise on The Sociology of Knowledge , many theorists have sought to explain social and mental phenomena, and to understand the relationship between the different aspects of the world through variations of this theory. 

The opposition to the social construction of reality is varied in scope. Some critics seek only a slight redefinition of the theory, while others vehemently declare the impossibility of such a theorys existence. For example, Max Scheler proposes the coexistence of knowledge and experience, saying that neither is based on the other. He also asserts that societal knowledge is primarily individual, as a result of social fragmentation. Humans can doubt those realities that do not affect them, but they cannot doubt those that do. Scheler proposes as well that social constructions are the result of innate human drives, rather than the result of environmental influences (Scheler, 1980). In Interpretation of the Savage Mind John Dewey agrees with the commonly accepted idea that the mind is an organ of service for the control of the environment in relation to the ends of the life process, although he also offered several criticisms of the theory. He believes that the problem with mental patterns is that it removes humans from their innate hunting schema and does not allow them to practice reasoning skills and keep mental facilities sharp. He worries that by subscribing to socially constructed realities humans would be unable to apply mental processes in daily pursuits and situations (Dewey, 1902). More recently Karl Popper addresses the theory with criticisms that would discredit its traditional ideals. Unlike some theorists, Popper asserts the knowledge and truth are not relative to history but to human reason which provides the framework for determining the single truth. He believes this is evidenced by the fact that there is not a uniformed national spirit produced by history (Popper, 1966). He also points out that academia values unbiased, freely poised knowledge because it avoids the pitfalls of ideology. It is contradictory, though, to claim that objectivity can be exhibited through ideas that are socially created and accepted, he believes. 

The focus of the social construction of reality is now centered around how groups produce and disseminate knowledge. One of the basic building blocks of constructed reality is language. Language is perhaps the most fundamental aspect of social construction in that it is vital in the transfer of the information among the members of a society; it helps to perpetuate and further the conception of subjective truths. Ironically, language is itself a social construction which helps to report and transmit products of our collective lives to a great number of different people (McCarthy, 1966). Mass media relies heavily on the ability to transmit information clearly and quickly; without language as a semi-universal social construct, the task would be nearly impossible. Mass media is responsible for legitimizing or disputing other social constructs by defining and distributing knowledge on a wide societal scale (Namer, 1984). Mass communication, through social constructs, also affects us on a broader level by helping to shape our world-wide relations and influencing our social and political destinies (McCarthy, 1966). 

While the theory is still surrounded by much controversy, the practical applications of the social construction of reality, such as language and government, are obvious. Though many critics have outlined serious flaws in the philosophy, no other adequate explanation is available to describe the mental phenomena present in different cultures.These commonly accepted, intangible institutions undoubtedly belong to the worlds that constructed them.

Take a look at our annotated bibliography!

Bibliography:

Ansart, Pierre. (1984) Is All Social Knowledge Ideological?. Society and Knowledge. Nico Stehr and Volker Meja, eds. Transaction Books.

Berger, Peter. (1966) Identity as a Problem in the Sociology of Knowledge. Journal of Sociology.

Berger, Peter and Thomas Luckmann. (1967) The Social Construction of Reality. Anchor Books.

De Gre, Gerard. (1941) The Sociology of Knowledge and the Problem of Truth. The Journal of the History of Ideas.

Dewey, John. (1902) Interpretation of the Savage Mind. Psychological Review.

Eriksson, Bjorn. (1975) Problems of an Empirical Sociology of Knowledge. Stockholm Uppsala Offset Center.

Gabel, Joseph. (1984) Is Nonideological Thought Possible? Society and Knowledge. Nico Stehr and Volker Meja, eds. Transaction Books.

Hacking, Ian. (1999) The Social Construction of What?. Harvard University Press.

Hartung, Frank E. (1952) Problems of the Sociology of Knowledge. Philosophy of Science, XIX. 

McCarthy, E. Doyle. (1996) Knowledge as Culture; the New Sociology of Knowledge. Routledge.

Mead, George Herbert. (1922) A Behavioristic Account of the Significant Symbol. Journal of Philosophy.

Merton, Robert K.. (1957) Paradigm for the Sociology of Knowledge.Social Theory and Social Structure. The Free Press.

Namer, Gerard. (1984) The Triple Legitimation: A Model for the Sociology of Knowledge. Society and Knowledge. Nico Stehr and Volker Meja, eds. Transaction Books.

Parsons, Talcott. (1959) An Approach to the Sociology of Knowledge. Transactions of the Fourth World Congress of Sociology, IV.

Popper, Karl. (1966) The Open Society and its Enemies. Routledge & Kegan.

Scheler, Max. (1980) Problems of Sociology of Knowledge. Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Searle, John R. (1985) The Construction of Social Reality. The Free Press.

Simonds, A.P. (1978) Karl Mannheims Sociology of Knowledge. Clarendon Press.

Speier, Hans. (1938) The Social Determination of Ideas. Social Research.

Stehr, Nico and Vokler Meja.. (1984) Society and Knowledge. Transaction Books.

Vitebsky, Piers. (1993) Is death the same everywhere? Concepts of knowing and doubting. Routledge.

Willard, Charles Arthur. (1983) Argumentation and the Social Grounds of Knowledge. University of Alabama Press.